Friday, July 23, 2010
TISSUE
Tissue is a group of cells having identical origin and similar function. Name tissue was given by 'Bichat'(1972) and study of tissues is known as histology. Term histology was given by 'Mayer'(1819). Cells are often held together with cell junction.
Saturday, June 19, 2010
The integumentary system
The integumentary system (Etymology - Latin integumentum, from integere to cover; from in- + tegere to cover [1]) is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails). The integumentary system has a variety of functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, regulate temperature and is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure and temperature. In humans the integumentary system additionally provides vitamin D synthesis.
The integumentary system is the largest organ system. In humans, this system accounts for about 16 percent of total body weight and covers 1.5-2m2 of surface area. It distinguishes, separates, protects and informs the animal with regard to its surroundings. Small-bodied invertebrates of aquatic or continually moist habitats respire using the outer layer (integument). This gas exchange system, where gases simply diffuse into and out of the interstitial fluid, is called integumentary exchange.
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Epidermis:
This is the top layer of skin made up of epithelial cells. It does not contain blood vessels. Its main function is protection, absorption of nutrients, and homeostasis. In structure, it consists of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium comprising four types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans' cells. The major cell of the epidermis is the keratinocyte, which produces keratin. Keratin is a fibrous protein that aids in protection. Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off daily. The majority of the skin on the body is keratinized. When cells are keratinized it means that it is waterproof. The only skin on the body that is non-keratinized is the lining of skin on the inside of the mouth. Non-keratinized cells allow water to "sit" atop the structure.
The epidermis contains different types of cells; the most common are squamous cells, which are flat, scaly cells on the surface of the skin. Then there are basal cells, which are round cells, and melanocytes, which give the skin its color. The epidermis also contains Langerhan's cells, which are formed in the bone marrow and then migrate to the epidermis. They work in conjunction with other cells to fight foreign bodies as part of the body's immune defense system. Granstein cells play a similar role. Melanocytes create melanin, the substance that gives skin its color. These cells are found deep in the epidermis layer. Accumulations of melanin are packaged in melanosomes (membrane-bound granules). These granules form a pigment shield against UV radiation for the keratinocyte nuclei.
The epidermis itself is made up of four to five layers. From the lower to upper epidermis, the layers are named: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (the extra layer that occurs in places such as palms and soles of the feet), and the stratum corneum.
The stratum basale is the only layer capable of cell division, pushing up cells to replenish the outer layer in a process called terminal differentiation. The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer and is made up of dead cells, proteins, and glycolipids.
The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails grow from thin area called the nail matrix; growth of nails is 1 mm per week on average. The lunula is the crescent-shape area at the base of the nail, this is a lighter colour as it mixes with the matrix cells.
The integumentary system is the largest organ system. In humans, this system accounts for about 16 percent of total body weight and covers 1.5-2m2 of surface area. It distinguishes, separates, protects and informs the animal with regard to its surroundings. Small-bodied invertebrates of aquatic or continually moist habitats respire using the outer layer (integument). This gas exchange system, where gases simply diffuse into and out of the interstitial fluid, is called integumentary exchange.
•
Epidermis:
This is the top layer of skin made up of epithelial cells. It does not contain blood vessels. Its main function is protection, absorption of nutrients, and homeostasis. In structure, it consists of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium comprising four types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans' cells. The major cell of the epidermis is the keratinocyte, which produces keratin. Keratin is a fibrous protein that aids in protection. Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off daily. The majority of the skin on the body is keratinized. When cells are keratinized it means that it is waterproof. The only skin on the body that is non-keratinized is the lining of skin on the inside of the mouth. Non-keratinized cells allow water to "sit" atop the structure.
The epidermis contains different types of cells; the most common are squamous cells, which are flat, scaly cells on the surface of the skin. Then there are basal cells, which are round cells, and melanocytes, which give the skin its color. The epidermis also contains Langerhan's cells, which are formed in the bone marrow and then migrate to the epidermis. They work in conjunction with other cells to fight foreign bodies as part of the body's immune defense system. Granstein cells play a similar role. Melanocytes create melanin, the substance that gives skin its color. These cells are found deep in the epidermis layer. Accumulations of melanin are packaged in melanosomes (membrane-bound granules). These granules form a pigment shield against UV radiation for the keratinocyte nuclei.
The epidermis itself is made up of four to five layers. From the lower to upper epidermis, the layers are named: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (the extra layer that occurs in places such as palms and soles of the feet), and the stratum corneum.
The stratum basale is the only layer capable of cell division, pushing up cells to replenish the outer layer in a process called terminal differentiation. The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer and is made up of dead cells, proteins, and glycolipids.
The protein keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form fingernails. Nails grow from thin area called the nail matrix; growth of nails is 1 mm per week on average. The lunula is the crescent-shape area at the base of the nail, this is a lighter colour as it mixes with the matrix cells.
Friday, August 14, 2009
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT TAMIFLU
Tamiflu (Oseltamivir) is an antiviral drug for the treatmant of influenza A and 
B. It works by blocking the function of viral neuraminidase protein. Tamiflu was the first orally active neuraminidase inhibitor commercially developed. It was developed by Gilead Sciences and is currently marketed by Roche. The increasing fears about the potential of bird flu turning into a new influenza pandemic, has focused attention on oseltamivir, especially since production capacity is limited and governments are stockpiling the drug.
The synthesis of Oseltamivir is a major feat of organic chemistry, it requires over 30 synthetic steps to make it from the naturally available (?)-shikimic acid. Apart from the complex synthetic route the availability of shikimic acid causes problems, it is exracted from spice Chinese star anise, so due to the demand for Tamiflu, Roche has had to buy up 90% of the worlds supply of spice.
The shortage of Tamiflu has prompted some individuals to stockpile Tamiflu. Sadly therefore there has been a market online selling of Tamiflu which is more than likely to be based on illegally imported and/or dangerous counterfeit pharmaceuticals. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in early Dec 2005 took action against a number of websites requiring them to stop fraudulently marketing Tamiflu as a cure for bird flu.
B. It works by blocking the function of viral neuraminidase protein. Tamiflu was the first orally active neuraminidase inhibitor commercially developed. It was developed by Gilead Sciences and is currently marketed by Roche. The increasing fears about the potential of bird flu turning into a new influenza pandemic, has focused attention on oseltamivir, especially since production capacity is limited and governments are stockpiling the drug.The synthesis of Oseltamivir is a major feat of organic chemistry, it requires over 30 synthetic steps to make it from the naturally available (?)-shikimic acid. Apart from the complex synthetic route the availability of shikimic acid causes problems, it is exracted from spice Chinese star anise, so due to the demand for Tamiflu, Roche has had to buy up 90% of the worlds supply of spice.
The shortage of Tamiflu has prompted some individuals to stockpile Tamiflu. Sadly therefore there has been a market online selling of Tamiflu which is more than likely to be based on illegally imported and/or dangerous counterfeit pharmaceuticals. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in early Dec 2005 took action against a number of websites requiring them to stop fraudulently marketing Tamiflu as a cure for bird flu.
Formal Chemical Name (IUPAC)(3R,4R,5S)-ethyl 4-acetamido-5-amino-3-(pentan-3-yloxy)cyclohex-1-enecarboxylate
TREATMENT FOR SWINE FLU
Antiviral drugs - Tamiflu and Relenza
Swine flu is being treated with antiviral drugs such as Tamiflu and Relenza.
Antiviral drugs work by preventing the flu virus from reproducing - to be effective you need to take them within 48 hours of the symptoms beginning. This can reduce the risk of complications and possibly shorten the illness by a day.If the National Pandemic Flu Service or your GP confirm you have swine flu, you will be told where your nearest antiviral collection point is so your 'flu friend' - a friend or relative who does not have swine flu - can pick up antiviral drugs for you.
Adverse reactions to Tamiflu
In some cases, antiviral medicine can cause side effects, such as:
· nausea
· vomiting
· diarrhoea
· stomach ache
· headache
Even if you do feel these symptoms it is important that those prescribed antiviral medicine complete the course, even if symptoms of swine flu clear and you start to feel better quickly.
INCUBATION PERIOD OF SWINE FLU
"The estimated incubation period is unknown and could range from 1-7 days, and more likely 1-4 days."The typical incubation period for influenza is 1-4 days (average: 2 days). Adults shed influenza virus from the day before symptoms begin through 5-10 days after illness onset. However, the amount of virus shed, and presumably infectivity, decreases rapidly by 3-5 days after onset in an experimental human infection model. Young children also might shed virus several days before illness onset, and children can be infectious for 10 or more days after onset of symptoms. Severely immunocompromised persons can shed virus for weeks or months. "Uncomplicated influenza illness typically resolves after 3-7 days for the majority of persons, although cough and malaise can persist for >2 weeks. However, influenza virus infections can cause primary influenza viral pneumonia; exacerbate underlying medical conditions (e.g., pulmonary or cardiac disease); lead to secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinusitis, or otitis media; or contribute to coinfections with other viral or bacterial pathogens."
Wednesday, August 12, 2009
SYMPTOMS OF SWINE FLU
It is important that as swine flu spreads, you know the symptoms of the disease so you can recognise it in yourself and others at an early stage.
Please read this page and consider your symptoms carefully before using the National Pandemic Flu Service mentioned below.
So far, most swine flu cases have been mild, with symptoms similar to those
of seasonal flu. Only a small number of people have had more serious symptoms.
If you or a member of your family has any of the following symptoms and a temperature of 38°C or above, you may have swine flu. The typical symptoms are:
a sudden fever (a high body temperature of 38°C/100.4°F or above), and
a sudden cough.
Other symptoms may include:
*headache,
*tiredness,
*chills,
*aching muscles,
*limb or joint pain,
*diarrhoea or stomach upset,
*sore throat,
*runny nose,
*sneezing, or
*loss of appetite.
Please read this page and consider your symptoms carefully before using the National Pandemic Flu Service mentioned below.
So far, most swine flu cases have been mild, with symptoms similar to those
of seasonal flu. Only a small number of people have had more serious symptoms.If you or a member of your family has any of the following symptoms and a temperature of 38°C or above, you may have swine flu. The typical symptoms are:
a sudden fever (a high body temperature of 38°C/100.4°F or above), and
a sudden cough.
Other symptoms may include:
*headache,
*tiredness,
*chills,
*aching muscles,
*limb or joint pain,
*diarrhoea or stomach upset,
*sore throat,
*runny nose,
*sneezing, or
*loss of appetite.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR SWINE FLU
1.The first preventive measure is to avoid contact with the pigs (swine). If you have pigs in your area then please inform the local municipal office so that he can take care of those pigs by keeping them isolated.
2. Swine flu is communicable disease, so use the face masks to protect from the swine flu antigens.
3. Cover your nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing, using tissue when possible. Dispose this tissue by using only once.
4. Avoid visiting the crowded places like theaters and prayer halls. This can be the spreading ground for Swine flu.
5. Maintain good hygiene. Wash your hands frequently with soap and water to reduce the spread of virus. It would be better if you use alcohol sanitizers or Dettol for washing hands.
6. Take a special care of children because they easily get infected with the Swine flu. It is okay if you don’t send them to school for few days. Many schools have even announced holidays.
7. Avoid eating outside food because it may be contaminated and may make you infected with the virus.
8. Don’t use the public urinals because many people spit there, which could lead to the spreading of the disease.
9. Drink the boiled water.
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